Blackfoot

• Relationship-dependent-meaning; The structure of linguistic engagement of Niitsi'powahsin (the Blackfoot language) can be thought of as a “grammar of animacy” (Kimmerer, 2017) – a manner of expression that isn't structured around things/nouns, but about sentience, dynamism, possibility.
• Complete meanings rather than words: Niitsi'powahsin is not a language of words, but a language of complete expressions. Distinctions of nouns and verbs dissolve because they don't exist without the other. Rather Áóhtakoistsi (groupings of sounds) come together to describe an Áíkia'pii (event) comprised of the interrelated and interdependent Iitáíssapo'pi (view or spatial dimension) + Niitáínaarrsii'pi (quality) + Áísawaa'pii (process/change) + Aanista'pii (manner-of-state).
• As such, we depart from our usual strategy of root word-based analysis. Instead, we focus on Aanissin, complete sayings.
• As well, "education" is not construed as an aspect of one's life. Rather, “Issksinima'tstohksinn” encompasses every aspect of learning and growth that one encounters through life.

Depending on the context, teaching is about Isspommotsinni (giving and sharing) in the Niipaitapiiyssin ihtsipaitapiiyo’pa (the way of life) by conducting Aaopaatoom (ceremony) and/or Naatowa’po’ksisst (holding a bundle through Pómmakssin) and/or becoming a knowledge keeper and/or Íínapannsini – giving public testimony, to give historical accountings of events. Elders’ teaching is often a repetition of what is being observed (as skills) or heard (oral history). The land, sun, moon, rivers, lakes, rocks, plants and animals teach by being, changing, living and providing experiences.

Teachers

Crop Eared Wolf (2007) describes how “[w]ithin Káínai protocol it is Kínna ki kiksíssta (your father and mother), Kaaáhsiksi (grandparents), Kí’siksi (older brothers) who are responsible for teaching you. They are your primary sources of gaining knowledge. Next are Elders of the community in general who have the specific knowledge that you are seeking. In matters touching on deep knowledge it is the ceremonial grandparents, Aaáwaahskataiks, whom you approach” (p. 19).

An example of how the land teaches is in the names of the 13 moons which reflect earth’s cycles and seasons: Matoomstaato’si – First Winter Moon, Isstaato’si – Cold Moon, Iihkanoomiitaakoowa – We all Feed and Prepare, Ka’toyi – All Consuming Moon, Piitaiki’soom – Eagle Moon, Sa’aiki’somm – Duck Moon, Matsiyikkapisaiki’somm – Frog Moon, Apistsisskitsaato’si – Blossom Moon, Misamsootaato’si – Moon of the Long Rains, Okonokiistsiotsitai’tssp – When Saskatoons Ripen, Pakki’pistsiotsitai’tssp – When Chokecherries Ripen, Iitamatapapittssko – When Leaves Change Colour. Below is an image of the 13 moons displayed at the Waterton Lakes Visitor Center.

Photo Credits: Bridge City News (1 Jul 19, 2022) Waterton Lakes Visitor Centre Features Blackfoot Exhibit. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HalN3_flmM4

Common phrases about teaching

• Okakusin – Telling a person to be aware all the time.
• Támokskitsinikookit – When an Elder who is teaching asks “Would you relay back to me the outcome?” This recognizes your responsibilities and provides for accountability (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• Kitáaksskssopwahtsi’sakka ka kitáaksístssksook – When an Elder poses questions to gauge your understanding of their teaching (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• Ákaisskapiimiiwaiksi – A mother’s guidance and support of her children to set a life path (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• Aisiimoki (aiskinnima’tsoki) – person is giving guidance; teachings, disciplines (Bastien, 2004).
• Áyaaksikowatayaaw – the process of parents naming their child and setting their course in life. The parents confer with grandparents. It is believed that the power of the experiences from which names are drawn will guide the child and assist in their life (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• It is not good to fight in front of the children; it is as if you are teaching them anger, Miníkka’pii (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• Íínapannssini – meaning they are “giving public testimony.” This is standard practice when one tells a story or passes on knowledge. It requires stating who you learned from, identifying them by name and indicating how they came to possess the knowledge (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• Niipaitapiiysiin – constant motion of breath together with Ihtsipaitapiiyo’pa identifies the meaning and purpose of life; to teach Siksikaitsitapiipaitapiiyssin, the Blackfoot way of life.
• Ihstsipaitapiiyo-pa – that which gives life, the creator who gives us life.

Learning is a constant and life-long process that begins when the parents sing to the baby in the womb and continues until death. A key aspect of learning is Kakyosin, which means coming to know by observing with your whole being. The purpose of learning is to be a good person, to live a good life. There is no separation of teaching, learning, knowledge and context.

Learning is about Niipaitapiiwahsin (a constant breath of motion, living in and co-evolving responsibilities in the Blackfoot way of life). This includes participating in: Sopówahtsiyssini (a process of inquiry), Aawaatoyinnaiyi (singing of sacred songs), ceremonies, quests, accountings of events, etc. Ssksinima’tsi (the one who is being taught) learns by Kakyosin (coming to know by observing with all your senses the patterns of life and the environment), Ihtsistototsp (experiencing), interacting and participating.

At some point a person may have a sincere personal commitment to learn as expressed through Sopówahtsiyssini, the process of inquiry. Then they have someone approach a Kaahsinnooniksi (ceremonial grandparent) on their behalf. If the grandparent agrees, they will teach the person the knowledge of the bundles. This process requires listening to accounts and completing many tasks as required by the grandparent. When the grandparent feels the person is ready, they transfer the bundle to the person in a process called Pómmaksin, which transforms both the person and their community. At that point, the person is considered to be someone who leads a good life.

Common phrases about learning

• Kakyosin isstaokaki’tsotp – observation gives us intelligence, knowledge, and wisdom (Bastien, 2004).
• Otsikímmotsii’ssiniaaw – the children will follow the ways of compassion shown by their parents.
• Life is regarded as a constantly unfolding mystery, Iksistska’pinipáítapiiyssin, which may never be fully understood (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• A sincere personal commitment to learn as expressed through Sopówahtsiyssini, the process of inquiry (Crop Eared Wolf, 2007).
• Aistommatoominniki – when you have made knowledge part of your body, embodying your knowledge. When one lives one’s knowledge, they have come to understand. For example, when one participates in a ceremony, they know what it is about (Bastien, 2004).
• Kii Nai’tsistomato’k Ai’stamma’tso’tsspi – embodying or being the knowledge you have been given (Bastien, 2004).
• Aistommatop – transformed; when we have embodied the knowledge, we become the knowledge.
• Ais saak otsistapitsihk niipaitapiiyssinni – seeking to understand life (Bastien, 2004).

Knowing is about Aistomatoominniki (coming to know your heart), Aistommatop (when we have embodied the knowledge), and Akaaostsistapi’takyo’p (experiential knowing of all our relations).

Phrases about Knowledge

• Kakyosin – the spirit of knowledge; it means ‘to observe’ and is related to Mokaksin (knowledge, intelligence, and wisdom derived from observation and connection with the universe). Through Kakyosin, one can align themselves with universal patterns (Bastien, 2004).
• Kipaitapiwahsinnooni – traditional knowledge; life encompasses many things.

Phrases about knowing

• Nináóhkanistssksinii’pi – what I know of the matter.
• Akaotsistapi’takyo’p – “we have come to understand [not merely know] it” (Bastien, 2004, p. 198). This refers to experiential connection to relations.
• Ao’tsistapitakyoki – transformed consciousness.
• Aisskinihp – we know it to be so (Bastien, 2004).
• Aotsistapitsihk Maanistsihp – consciousness of the natural order.

Tools for knowing

The Blackfoot language is traditionally oral, and thus they have many tools for helping them remember knowledge. These tools carry deep spiritual meaning. Some examples include:

• Ceremonial Bundles: Transferred as part of Pómmakssin. Bundles may include cloth wrapping, medicines, ceremonial tools, animal skins, pipes, buckskin bags, amulets, jewelry, etc.

  Photo Credits: Scriver, Bob (1990) The Blackfeet Artists of the Northern Plains: The Scriver Collection of Blackfeet Artifacts and Related Objects, 1894––1990. Lowell Press.

• A Winter Count: Tells a story. In the example below, Many Shots’ 1895 Káínai Winter Count tells four stories—one in each quadrant of the hide. The tally lines in the center indicate the passing of time.

  Photo Credits: Pitt Rivers Museum (n.d.) Many Shot’s Robe. Available at https://www.prm.ox.ac.uk/many-shots-robe#listing_731466_0

• Landmarks: For example, the Aka-Kitsipimi-ota (Many Spotted Horses) Medicine Wheel serves as a memorial to people and events. The circle of rocks forms the base of a tipi or lodge, with the center as the fire hearth and four lines aligning with the four directions. Aka-Kitsipimi-ota belonged to a rich Káínai War Chief whose 30 buffalo-skin tipi had two doorways and two fireplaces (Pard et al., 2016).

  Photo credits: Pard et al. (2016). The Blackfoot Medicine Wheel project. Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 36, 86-99.

• These landmarks are quintessentially Blackfoot. They serve as sites for remembering, teaching and learning, performing ceremonies, and participating in vision quests.

O’tapítanii—the practice of indirect reference—is a key feature of Káínai society, where the listener must make their own connections. In my process of transcreation, I experienced O’tapítanii firsthand. For example, Staahtsisttayaaki (Genevieve) never provided exact definitions or translations. Instead, she recommended books and places to explore, such as the Waterton Visitor Center. After visiting, I realized I had missed the 13 moons exhibits. Though she didn’t name the moons, she mentioned being born in the Frog moon, leaving it up to me to make my own connections.

Bastien, B. (2004). Blackfoot ways of knowing: The worldview of the Siksikaititapi. University of Calgary Press.

Crop Eared Wolf, A. (2007). Matsiyipáítapiiyssini: Káínai peacekeeping and peacemaking. [Unpublished Masters Thesis] University of Lethbridge.

Little Bear, L. & Heavy Head, R. (2004). A conceptual anatomy of the Blackfoot word. ReVision, 26(3), 31-38.

Kimmerer, R. W. (2017). Learning the grammar of animacy. Anthropology of Consciousness, 28(2), 128-134.

Pard et al. (2016). The Blackfoot Medicine Wheel project. Archaeological Survey of Alberta Occasional Paper 36, 86-99.